1.3 Kachru's Model and World Englishes
The Three Circles model and its relevance today.
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KachruInner CircleOuter CircleExpanding Circle
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Who Owns English?
With 1.5 billion speakers spread across every continent, a fundamental question arises: Who "owns" the English language? Is the "correct" form of English the one spoken in London? In New York? In New Delhi? In Lagos?
The field of World Englishes challenges the idea that there is one "proper" English. Instead, it recognizes that English has diversified into many legitimate varieties around the world, each with its own grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and cultural context.
The most influential framework for understanding this diversity was developed by the Indian-American linguist Braj Kachru in 1985.
Kachru's Three Circles Model (1985)
Braj Kachru proposed that English speakers around the world can be categorized into three concentric circles:
The Inner Circle (~400 million speakers):
- Countries where English is the primary native language
- Examples: United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland
- Traditionally seen as "norm-providing" — these countries set the standards for "correct" English
- Home to major dictionaries, grammar guides, and testing organizations
The Outer Circle (~750 million speakers):
- Countries where English was introduced through colonialism and now has an official or institutional role
- Examples: India, Nigeria, Singapore, Philippines, Kenya, South Africa, Pakistan, Malaysia
- Described as "norm-developing" — these countries are creating their own recognized varieties of English
- English exists alongside and interacts with local languages
The Expanding Circle (~750 million+ learners):
- Countries where English is learned as a foreign language with no historical colonial connection
- Examples: Norway, Germany, China, Japan, Brazil, Russia, South Korea, Egypt
- Traditionally "norm-dependent" — looking to Inner Circle standards
- The fastest-growing group of English users worldwide
✏️World Englishes in Practice
How do the different circles produce different varieties of English? Give specific examples.
Inner Circle — American English vs. British English:
- Vocabulary: apartment/flat, truck/lorry, cookie/biscuit, fall/autumn
- Spelling: color/colour, center/centre, organize/organise
- Grammar: "I just ate" (AmE) vs. "I've just eaten" (BrE)
- Vocabulary: apartment/flat, truck/lorry, cookie/biscuit, fall/autumn
- Spelling: color/colour, center/centre, organize/organise
- Grammar: "I just ate" (AmE) vs. "I've just eaten" (BrE)
Outer Circle — Indian English:
- Unique vocabulary: "prepone" (opposite of postpone), "do the needful," "passed out" (graduated)
- Grammar: "I am having a doubt" (I have a question), "She is knowing the answer"
- Pronunciation: Retroflex consonants, syllable-timed rhythm
Outer Circle — Nigerian English (Pidgin):
- "How far?" (How are you?), "I no sabi" (I don't know)
- Nigerian Pidgin English is spoken by over 75 million people
Expanding Circle — Singlish (Singapore English):
- While Singapore is in the Outer Circle officially, Singlish shows unique innovations:
- "Can lah!" (Yes, that's possible), "Don't play play" (Don't mess around)
These examples show that English adapts creatively to local contexts and that "correctness" depends on context and audience.
📝Oppgave 1
In Kachru's Three Circles model, which circle does Norway belong to?
📝Oppgave 2
Classify the following countries into Inner Circle, Outer Circle, or Expanding Circle, and explain your reasoning for each: Japan, South Africa, Ireland, Brazil, Singapore, New Zealand.
Critique and Limitations of the Three Circles Model
While Kachru's model remains widely used, it has been extensively criticized:
1. Rigid boundaries:
- The circles suggest clear distinctions, but reality is messier
- Where does South Africa belong? It has both native speakers and second-language speakers
- Countries like the Netherlands and Scandinavia have such high English proficiency that they are arguably moving from the Expanding to the Outer Circle
2. Internal diversity ignored:
- The USA (Inner Circle) contains millions of speakers for whom English is a second language
- India (Outer Circle) has regions where English is barely spoken and others where it is dominant
3. Implied hierarchy:
- The model can suggest that Inner Circle English is the "real" or "correct" standard
- This marginalizes Outer Circle varieties that have developed their own norms and literatures
- It positions Expanding Circle speakers as eternally "learning" rather than "using"
4. Static model in a dynamic world:
- Global migration and digital communication blur traditional categories
- A Nigerian living in London, or a Japanese person working in Singapore, does not fit neatly into one circle
Alternative frameworks:
- Some scholars prefer concepts like "English as a Lingua Franca" or "translanguaging" that focus on how English is actually used rather than where speakers come from
📝Oppgave 3
Which of the following is a valid criticism of Kachru's Three Circles model?
📝Oppgave 4
Many Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) have extremely high levels of English proficiency. Some linguists argue these countries are shifting from the Expanding Circle toward the Outer Circle. Do you agree? What evidence would support or challenge this claim?
Summary
Kachru's Three Circles model provides a useful starting point for understanding the global distribution of English speakers. It helps us distinguish between countries where English is a native language, where it has an institutional role due to colonialism, and where it is learned as a foreign language.
However, the model has significant limitations. The boundaries between circles are increasingly blurred, the model can imply an unhelpful hierarchy, and it struggles to account for the dynamic, mobile, and digital nature of modern English use.
The concept of World Englishes reminds us that there is no single "correct" English. Each variety reflects its speakers' cultural context, linguistic heritage, and communicative needs. As we move forward, the question is not "Which English is best?" but rather "Which English is appropriate for this context?"
📝Oppgave 5
Choose one variety of English from the Outer Circle (e.g., Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean English). Research and present: What are its distinctive features? How did it develop? Is it recognized as a legitimate variety? Use specific examples of vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.
📝Oppgave 6
"There is no such thing as correct English — only appropriate English." Discuss this statement in relation to Kachru's model and the concept of World Englishes. In your answer, consider: Should students in Norway aim for British or American English, or is any clear and effective English acceptable?